Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono ( President R.I )

Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono (born September 9, 1949), is an Indonesian retired military general and the sixth President of Indonesia. Yudhoyono won the presidency in September 2004 in the second round of the Indonesian presidential election, in which he defeated incumbent President Megawati Sukarnoputri. He was sworn into office on October 20, 2004, together with Jusuf Kalla as Vice President.
Javanese do not have surnames in the Western sense.[1] The name Yudhoyono was not inherited either from his father or his mother. While Susilo Bambang uses Yudhoyono in naming his children, it is not a descended family surname. In Indonesia, he is referred to in some media as Susilo and is widely known by the initial SBY. Abroad, he is referred to as Yudhoyono, a name that he chose for his military name-tag, while in formal meetings and functions he is addressed as Dr. Yudhoyono. Susilo is apparently derived from Susila in Sanskrit which in means 'well-behaved' or perhaps Sushil, which means 'one with good character'.

Early life
Born in Pacitan, East Java, on September 9, 1949, to a lower-middle class family and is the son of Raden Soekotjo, an army officer, and Siti Habibah. Since he was a child, he always wanted to be in the army.[2] His first school was Sekolah Rakyat Gadjahmada (now is SDN Baleharjo I). Yudhoyono developed a reputation as an extremely talented student in addition to being an academic achiever, excelling in writing poems, short stories, and play-acting. Yudhoyono was also talented in music and sport, reflected when he and his friends established a volleyball club called "Klub Rajawali" and a band called "Gaya Teruna".[3] Music became a hobby for Yudhoyono and he often sang one of his favorite songs, "Pelangi di Matamu" during his presidential campaign.[4]
When he was in 5th grade, Yudhoyono visited the National Military Academy (AMN) at Magelang. After seeing the soldiers training there and perhaps inspired by his own father's career, Yudhoyono became determined to join ABRI and become a soldier. Yudhoyono had originally wanted to get into the ABRI Academy (Akabri) after graduating from high school in 1968, however, he missed out because he did not register in time.[2]
Yudhoyono then became a student at the Sepuluh November Institute of Technology (ITS) before entering the Teachers Education School in Malang, East Java. There, he was able to prepare everything for his next education at Akabri. Yudhoyono officially entered Akabri in 1970 after he passed the test which took place in Bandung, West Java.

Military career
Yudhoyono spent three years at Akabri (Academy of Indonesian Armed Forces) and became the Commander of the Cadet Corps Division there. He graduated from Akabri in 1973, and as the best graduate of the year, received the prestigious Adhi Makayasa Medal from President Suharto.
After graduating, Yudhoyono joined Kostrad and became a platoon Commander in the 330 Airborne Battalion. Aside from leading his troops, Yudhoyono also received the task of giving the Battalion soldiers lessons on general knowledge and English. Yudhoyono's proficiency in English was one of the reasons why he was sent to the United States to undertake the Airborne and Ranger Course at Fort Benning in 1975.
Yudhoyono returned to Indonesia in 1976 where he became a platoon Commander in the 305 Battalion and assigned to East Timor. Yudhoyono had several tours of duty there since and, like many other Indonesian officers involved in the occupation of East Timor, was accused of committing war crimes. However, Yudhoyono has never been charged with any specific act. From East Timor, Yudhoyono became a Mortar platoon commander (1977), an Operations Officer for an Airborne Brigade (1977-1978), and Battalion Commander (1979-1981) at Kostrad. Yudhoyono then spent 1981 and 1982 working at the Army Headquarters.
Whilst working at the Army Headquarters, Yudhoyono was sent to the United States again, this time to participate in the Infantry Officer Advanced Course at Fort Benning and in the On The Job Training with the 82nd Airborne Division. Yudhoyono also spent time at Panama and went through the jungle warfare school. When Yudhoyono returned in 1983, he was made Commander of the Infantry Trainers' School. It was not long before he was abroad again this time to Belgium and West Germany to undertake the Antitank weapons Course. In 1985, Yudhoyono also took a Battalion Commando Course in Malaysia.
From 1986-1988, Yudhoyono served at KODAM IX/Udayana which looked after the security of Bali and the smaller Sunda Islands. Yudhoyono was Batalion Commander from 1986-1988 and was part of the Operational Staff in 1988. In 1989, Yudhoyono became a lecturer at the Army Staff College (Seskoad) and delivered a presentation entitled "ABRI's Professionalism at the Present and in the Future". Together with Agus Wirahadikusumah, Yudhoyono published a book entitled "The Challenges of Development". As a lecturer, Yudhoyono also began to experiment with the concept of democracy.
Whilst at Seskoad, Yudhoyono also took the opportunity to further his own military education. He went to the US Army Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. While at the United States, he also took the opportunity to get an MA in business management from Webster University in 1991.
In 1992, Yudhoyono was transferred to the Army Information Department and worked as a speech writer for General Edi Sudrajat, the Army Chief of Staff. In 1993, when Edi became ABRI Commander, Yudhoyono became the Coordinator Edi's personal staff. Edi did not last long as ABRI Commander and Yudhoyono was then transferred back to Kostrad where he became a Brigade Commander. A year later, Yudhoyono was the Operations Assistant at KODAM Jaya before becoming a Military Resort Commander (KOREM) at KODAM IV/Diponegoro in Central Java.
Yudhoyono had one more stint overseas when he became Indonesia's Chief Military Observer of United Nation Peacekeeping Force in Bosnia in 1995-96.
When Yudhoyono returned to Indonesia, he was made KODAM Jaya Chief of Staff before being appointed as KODAM II/Sriwijaya Commander. In this position, Yudhoyono was responsible for the security of the southern provinces of Sumatra. He served in this position until 1997, when he was appointed Chief of Staff for Social Political Affairs. At the same time, he was also appointed Chairman of the ABRI Faction at the 1998 People's Consultative Assembly (MPR) General Session and participated in Suharto's election to a 7th term as President.
During the days which would lead to Suharto's fall in May, Yudhoyono and pro-reform ABRI officers conducted meetings and discussions with Nurcholish Madjid, a secular pro-reform Muslim leader. From his discussions, Yudhoyono accepted to the fact that Suharto should resign but like the ABRI officers who went to the meeting with him, was reluctant to withdraw their support of Suharto publicly much less ask for Suharto's resignation.[5] Nevertheless the pressure would eventually become too much for Suharto, who resigned on 21 May 1998.
As Indonesia entered the reform period, ABRI's popularity, because of its association with Suharto, was at an all time low. Nevertheless, ABRI undertook reform much like all the other aspects of Indonesian society. To de-emphasize ABRI's political role, Yudhoyono's Chief of Staff for Social Political Affairs was renamed Chief of Staff for Territorial Affairs and in 1999, ABRI would be separated into TNI and the Republic of Indonesia Police (Polri). At this time, Yudhoyono's popularity began to increase as he offered ideas and concepts to reform the military and nation. He did this by combining the strong reformist sentiment of the time with TNI's concern for security and stability.[5] Yudhoyono then became known in the media as "The Thinking General

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World Trade Center

The World Trade Center in New York City, United States (sometimes informally referred to as the WTC or the Twin Towers) was a complex of seven buildings in Lower Manhattan, mostly designed by Detroit-based architect Minoru Yamasaki and engineer Leslie Robertson and developed by the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. It was initiated in 1960 by a Lower Manhattan Association created and chaired by David Rockefeller, who had the original idea of building the center, with strong backing from the then-New York governor, his brother Nelson Rockefeller.[2] The World Trade Center, New York, like most World Trade Centers located around the globe, belonged to the family of World Trade Centers Association. Prior to its destruction, Larry Silverstein held the most recent lease to the complex, the Port Authority having leased it to him in July 2001.[3] The complex, located in the heart of New York City's downtown financial district, contained 13.4 million square feet (1.24 million m²) of office space, almost four percent of Manhattan's entire office inventory at that time.[4]
Best known for its iconic 110-story twin towers (101 usable floors, eight engineering-only "service" floors on top of a lobby which was six[5] stories high and 80') the World Trade Center was beset by a fire on February 13, 1975 and a bombing on February 26, 1993.
All seven original buildings in the complex were destroyed by terrorists linked to Al-Qaeda[6] on September 11, 2001. Three of the buildings collapsed: One World Trade Center (1 WTC, the North Tower), Two World Trade Center (2 WTC, the South Tower), and 7 World Trade Center (7 WTC). The Marriott World Trade Center (3 WTC) was crushed by the collapses of 1 WTC and 2 WTC. 4 World Trade Center (4 WTC), 5 World Trade Center (5 WTC), and 6 World Trade Center (6 WTC) were damaged beyond repair and later demolished. Three buildings not part of the complex were also destroyed: St. Nicholas Greek Orthodox Church was destroyed by the collapse of 2 WTC. The Deutsche Bank Building was damaged beyond repair by the explosions and collapse of 1 and 2 WTC; and Borough of Manhattan Community College's Fiterman Hall was damaged beyond repair by the collapse of 7 WTC; these are currently being deconstructed.

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Gerakan Non-Blok

Gerakan Non-Blok (GNB) (bahasa Inggris: Non-Aligned Movement/NAM) adalah suatu organisasi internasional yang terdiri dari lebih dari 100 negara-negara yang tidak menganggap dirinya beraliansi dengan atau terhadap blok kekuatan besar apapun. Tujuan dari organisasi ini, seperti yang tercantum dalam Deklarasi Havana tahun 1979, adalah untuk menjamin "kemerdekaan, kedaulatan, integritas teritorial, dan keamanan dari negara-negara nonblok" dalam perjuangan mereka menentang imperialisme, kolonialisme, neo-kolonialisme, apartheid, Zionisme, rasisme dan segala bentuk agresi militer, pendudukan, dominasi, interferensi atau hegemoni dan menentang segala bentuk blok politik.[1] Mereka merepresentasikan 55 persen penduduk dunia dan hampir 2/3 keangotaan PBB. Negara-negara yang telah menyelenggarakan konferensi tingkat tinggi (KTT) Non-Blok termasuk Yugoslavia, Mesir, Zambia, Aljazair, Sri Lanka, Kuba, India, Zimbabwe, Indonesia, Kolombia, Afrika Selatan dan Malaysia.
Anggota-anggota penting di antaranya Yugoslavia, India, Mesir, Indonesia, Pakistan, Kuba, Kolombia, Venezuela, Afrika Selatan, Iran, Malaysia, dan, dan untuk suatu masa, Republik Rakyat Tiongkok. Meskipun organisasi ini dimaksudkan untuk menjadi aliansi yang dekat seperti NATO atau Pakta Warsawa, negara-negara anggotanya tidak pernah mempunayi kedekatan yang diingikan dan banyak anggotanya yang akhirnya diajak beraliansi salah satu negara-negara adidaya tersebut. Misalnya, Kuba mempunyai hubungan yang dekat dengan Uni Soviet pada masa Perang Dingin. Atau India yang bersekutu dengan Uni Soviet untuk melawan Tiongkok selama beberapa tahun. Lebih buruk lagi, beberapa anggota bahkan terlibat konflik dengan anggota lainnya, seperti misalnya konflik antara India dengan Pakistan, Iran dengan Irak. Gerakan ini sempat terpecah pada saat Uni Soviet menginvasi Afghanistan pada tahun 1979. Ketika itu, seluruh sekutu Soviet mendukung invasi sementara anggota GNB, terutama negara dengan mayoritas muslim, tidak mungkin melakukan hal yang sama untuk Afghanistan akibat adanya perjanjian nonintervensi.

Sejarah
Para pendiri Gerakan Non blok di New York tahun 1960
Kata "Non-Blok" diperkenalkan pertama kali oleh Perdana Menteri India Nehru dalam pidatonya tahun 1954 di Colombo, Sri Langka. Dalam pidato itu, Nehru menjelaskan lima pilar yang dapat digunakan sebagai pedoman untuk membentuk relasi Sino-India yang disebut dengan Panchsheel (lima pengendali). Prinsip ini kemudian digunakan sebagai basis dari Gerakan Non-Blok. Lima prinsip tersebut adalah:
Saling menghormati integritas teritorial dan kedaulatan.
Perjanjian non-agresi
Tidak mengintervensi urusan dalam negeri negara lain
Kesetaraan dan keuntungan bersama
Menjaga perdamaian
Gerakan Non-Blok sendiri bermula dari sebuah konferensi yang diadakan di Bandung, Indonesia, pada tahun 1955. Di sana, negara-negara yang tidak berpihak pada blok tertentu mendeklarasikan keinginan mereka untuk tidak terlibat dalam konfrontasi ideologi Barat-Timur. Pendiri dari gerakan ini adalah lima pemimpin dunia: Josip Broz Tito presiden Yugoslavia, Soekarno presiden Indonesia, Gamal Abdul Nasser presiden Mesir, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru perdana menteri India, dan Kwame Nkrumah dari Ghana.
Gerakan ini sempat kehilangan kredibilitasnya pada akhir tahun1960-an ketika anggota-anggotanya mulai terpecah dan bergabung bersama Blok lain, terutama Blok Timur. Muncul pertanyaan bagaimana sebuah negara yang bersekutu dengan Uni Soviet seperti Kuba bisa mengklaim dirinya sebagai negara nonblok. Gerakan ini kemudian terpecah sepenuhnya pada masa invasi Soviet terhadap Afghanistan tahun 1979.
Pertemuan GNB
Normalnya, pertemuan GNB berlangsung setiap tiga tahun sekali. Negara yang pernah menjadi tuan rumah KTT GNB di antaranya Yugoslavia, Mesir, Zambia, Aljazair, Sri Lanka, Kuba, India, Zimbabwe, Indonesia, Kolombia, Afrika Selatan, dan Malaysia. Biasanya setelah mengadakan konferensi, kepala negara atau kepala pemerintahan yang menjadi tuan rumah konferensi itu akan dijadikan ketua gerakan untuk masa jabatan tiga tahun.
Pertemuan berikutnya diadakan di Kairo pada 1964. Pertemuan tersebut dihadiri 56 negara anggota di mana anggota-anggota barunya datang dari negara-negara merdeka baru di Afrika. Kebanyakan dari pertemuan itu digunakan untuk mendiskusikan konflik Arab-Israel dan Perang India-Pakistan.
Pertemuan pertama GNB terjadi di Beograd pada September 1961 dan dihadiri oleh 25 anggota, masing-masing 11 dari Asia dan Afrika bersama dengan Yugoslavia, Kuba dan Siprus. Kelompok ini mendedikasikan dirinya untuk melawan kolonialisme, imperialisme dan neo-kolonialisme.
Pertemuan pada tahun 1969 di Lusaka dihadiri oleh 54 negara dan merupakan salah satu yang paling penting dengan gerakan tersebut membentuk sebuah organisasi permanen untuk menciptakan hubungan ekonomi dan politik. Kenneth Kauda memainkan peranan yang penting dalam even-even tersebut.
Pertemuan paling baru (ke-13) diadakan di Malaysia dari 20-25 Februari 2003. Namun, GNB kini tampak semakin tidak mempunyai relevansi sejak berakhirnya Perang Dingin.

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Iwo Jima, Okinawa, bom atom, penyerahan Jepang

Perebutan pulau-pulau seperti Iwo Jima dan Okinawa oleh pasukan AS menyebabkan Kepulauan Jepang berada dalam jangkauan serangan laut dan udara Sekutu. Diantara kota-kota lain, Tokyo dibom bakar oleh Sekutu, dimana dalam penyerangan awal sendiri ada 90.000 orang tewas akibat kebakaran hebat di seluruh kota. Jumlah korban yang tinggi ini disebabkan oleh kondisi penduduk yang padat di sekitar sentra produksi dan konstruksi kayu serta kertas pada rumah penduduk yang banyak terdapat di masa itu. Tanggal 6 Agustus 1945, bomber B-29 "Enola Gay" yang dipiloti oleh Kolonel Paul Tibbets, Jr. melepaskan satu bom atom Little Boy di Hiroshima, yang secara efektif menghancurkan kota tersebut.
Pada tanggal 8 Agustus 1945, Uni Soviet mendeklarasikan perang terhadap Jepang, seperti yang telah disetujui pada Konferensi Yalta, dan melancarkan serangan besar terhadap Manchuria yang diduduki Jepang (Operasi Badai Agustus). Tanggal 9 Agustus 1945, bomber B-29 "Bock's Car" yang dipiloti oleh Mayor Charles Sweeney melepaskan satu bom atom Fat Man di Nagasaki.
Kombinasi antara penggunaan bom atom dan keterlibatan baru Uni Soviet dalam perang merupakan faktor besar penyebab menyerahnya Jepang, walaupun sebenarnya Uni Soviet belum mengeluarkan deklarasi perang sampai tanggal 8 Agustus 1945, setelah bom atom pertama dilepaskan. Jepang menyerah tanpa syarat pada tanggal 14 Agustus 1945, menanda tangani surat penyerahan pada tanggal 2 September 1945 diatas kapal USS Missouri di teluk Tokyo.

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Aristoteles

Aristoteles lahir di Stagira, kota di wilayah Chalcidice, Thracia, Yunani (dahulunya termasuk wilayah Makedonia tengah) tahun 384 SM. Ayahnya adalah tabib pribadi Raja Amyntas dari Makedonia. Pada usia 17 tahun, Aristoteles bergabung menjadi murid Plato. Belakangan ia meningkat menjadi guru di Akademi Plato di Athena selama 20 tahun. Aristoteles meninggalkan akademi tersebut setelah Plato meninggal, dan menjadi guru bagi Alexander dari Makedonia. Saat Alexander berkuasa di tahun 336 SM, ia kembali ke Athena. Dengan dukungan dan bantuan dari Alexander, ia kemudian mendirikan akademinya sendiri yang diberi nama Lyceum, yang dipimpinnya sampai tahun 323 SM.

Kontribusi dan karya
Filsafat Aristoteles berkembang pada waktu ia memimpin Lyceum, yang mencakup enam karya tulisnya yang membahas masalah logika, yang dianggap sebagai karya-karyanya yang paling penting, selain kontribusinya di bidang metafisika, fisika, etika, politik, kedokteran dan ilmu alam.
Di bidang ilmu alam, ia merupakan orang pertama yang mengumpulkan dan mengklasifikasikan spesies-spesies biologi secara sistematis. Karyanya ini menggambarkan kecenderungannya akan analisa kritis, dan pencarian terhadap hukum alam dan keseimbangan pada alam. Plato menyatakan teori tentang bentuk-bentuk ideal benda, sedangkan Aristoteles menjelaskan bahwa materi tidak mungkin tanpa bentuk karena ia ada (eksis). Selanjutnya ia menyatakan bahwa bentuk materi yang sempurna, murni atau bentuk akhir, adalah apa yang dinyatakannya sebagai theos, yaitu yang dalam pengertian Bahasa Yunani sekarang dianggap berarti Tuhan.
Logika Aristoteles adalah suatu sistem berpikir deduktif (deductive reasoning), yang bahkan sampai saat ini masih dianggap sebagai dasar dari setiap pelajaran tentang logika formal. Meskipun demikian, dalam penelitian ilmiahnya ia menyadari pula pentingnya observasi, eksperimen dan berpikir induktif (inductive thinking).
Di bidang politik, Aristoteles percaya bahwa bentuk politik yang ideal adalah gabungan dari bentuk demokrasi dan monarki.
Karena luasnya lingkup karya-karya dari Aristoteles, maka dapatlah ia dianggap berkontribusi dengan skala ensiklopedis, dimana kontribusinya melingkupi bidang-bidang yang sangat beragam sekali seperti fisika, astronomi, biologi, psikologi, metafisika (misalnya studi tentang prisip-prinsip awal mula dan ide-ide dasar tentang alam), logika formal, etika, politik, dan bahkan teori retorika dan puisi.

Pengaruh
Meskipun sebagian besar ilmu pengetahuan yang dikembangkannya terasa lebih merupakan penjelasan dari hal-hal yang masuk akal (common-sense explanation), banyak teori-teorinya yang bertahan bahkan hampir selama dua ribu tahun lamanya. Hal ini terjadi karena teori-teori tersebut karena dianggap masuk akal dan sesuai dengan pemikiran masyarakat pada umumnya, meskipun kemudian ternyata bahwa teori-teori tersebut salah total karena didasarkan pada asumsi-asumsi yang keliru.Misalnya teori Evolusi yang dianut oleh Charles Darwin, yang telah terbantahkan berkat perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan dan teknologi.
Dapat dikatakan bahwa pemikiran Aristoteles sangat berpengaruh pada pemikiran Barat dan pemikiran keagamaan lain pada umumnya. Penyelarasan pemikiran Aristoteles dengan teologi Kristiani dilakukan oleh Santo Thomas Aquinas di abad ke-13, dengan teologi Yahudi oleh Maimonides (1135 – 1204), dan dengan teologi Islam oleh Ibnu Rusyid (1126 – 1198). Bagi manusia abad pertengahan, Aristoteles tidak saja dianggap sebagai sumber yang otoritatif terhadap logika dan metafisika, melainkan juga dianggap sebagai sumber utama dari ilmu pengetahuan, atau "the master of those who know", sebagaimana yang kemudian dikatakan oleh Dante Alighieri

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Wage Rudolf Soepratman

Sewaktu tinggal di [[Makassar]], Soepratman memperoleh pelajaran musik dari kakak iparnya yaitu Willem van Eldik, sehingga pandai bermain biola dan kemudian bisa menggubah lagu. Ketika tinggal di Jakarta, pada suatu kali ia membaca sebuah karangan dalam majalah Timbul. Penulis karangan itu menantang ahli-ahli musik Indonesia untuk menciptakan lagu kebangsaan. Soepratman tertantang, lalu mulai menggubah lagu. Pada tahun [[1924]] lahirlah lagu Indonesia Raya.
Pada bulan Oktober [[1928]] di Jakarta dilangsungkan [[Kongres Pemuda II]]. Kongres itu melahirkan [[Sumpah Pemuda]]. Pada malam penutupan kongres, tanggal [[28 Oktober]] 1928, Soepratman memperdengarkan lagu ciptaannya secara instrumental di depan peserta umum ''(lihat [[Sugondo Djojopuspito]])''. Pada saat itulah untuk pertama kalinya lagu Indonesia Raya dikumandangkan di depan umum. Semua yang hadir terpukau mendengarnya. Dengan cepat lagu itu terkenal di kalangan pergerakan nasional. Apabila partai-partai politik mengadakan kongres, maka lagu Indonesia Raya selalu dinyanyikan. Lagu itu merupakan perwujudan rasa persatuan dan kehendak untuk merdeka.
Sesudah Indonesia merdeka, lagu Indonesia Raya dijadikan lagu kebangsaan, lambang persatuan bangsa. Tetapi, pencipta lagu itu, Wage Roedolf Soepratman, tidak sempat menikmati hidup dalam suasana kemerdekaan.
Akibat menciptakan lagu Indonesia Raya, ia selalu diburu oleh polisi Hindia Belanda, sampai jatuh sakit di [[Surabaya]]. Karena lagu ciptaannya yang terakhir "Matahari Terbit" pada awal Agustus 1938, ia ditangkap ketika menyiarkan lagu tersebut bersama pandu-pandu di [[NIROM]] jalan Embong Malang - Surabaya dan ditahan di penjara Kalisosok-Surabaya. Ia meninggal pada tanggal 17 Agustus 1938 karena sakit.

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Christopher Columbus

Columbus, Christopher (1451-1506), Italian Spanish navigator who sailed west across the Atlantic Ocean in search of a route to Asia but achieved fame by making landfall in the Americas instead. On October 12, 1492, two worlds unknown to each other met for the first time on a small island in the Caribbean Sea . While on a voyage for Spain in search of a direct sea route from Europe to Asia, Christopher Columbus unintentionally discovered the Americas. However, in four separate voyages to the Caribbean from 1492 to 1504, he remained convinced that he had found the lands that Marco Polo reached in his overland travels to China at the end of the 13th century. To Columbus it was only a matter of time before a passage was found through the Caribbean islands to the fabled cities of Asia. Columbus was not the first European to reach the Americas—Vikings from Scandinavia had briefly settled on the North American coast, in what is now Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, in the late 10th or early 11th century. However, Columbus’s explorations had a profound impact on the world. They led directly to the opening of the western hemisphere to European colonization; to large-scale exchanges of plants, animals, cultures, and ideas between the two worlds; and, on a darker note, to the deaths of millions of indigenous American peoples from war, forced labor, and disease. Understanding Christopher Columbus is difficult without understanding the world into which he was born. The 15th century was a century of change, and many events that occurred during that time profoundly affected European society. Many of these events were driven by the centuries-long conflict between Christians and Muslims, followers of the religion known as Islam. The event that had the most far-reaching effects on Europe in the 15th century was the fall of the city of Constantinople (modern Istanbul, Turkey) to the Muslim Ottoman Empire. Constantinople had been the capital of the Orthodox Christian Byzantine Empire for centuries, and it was an important center for trade between Europe and Asia. In 1453 the Ottoman Empire, which had already conquered much of southeastern Europe, captured the city, closing an important trade route from Europe to the east (see Ottoman Empire). European merchants could still buy Asian goods from Muslims in places such as Alexandria, Egypt. However, Europeans longed for a sea route to Asia that would allow them to bypass the Muslims and purchase Asian products directly. In addition, European princes and kings quickly realized that the first nation to find such a route could become very wealthy by monopolizing the highly profitable Asian trade. The first European nation to begin actively seeking a sea route to Asia was Portugal. The Portuguese had already begun exploring Africa in the early 1400s, and in 1415 they invaded northern Africa and conquered the Muslim commercial center of Ceuta on the Strait of Gibraltar. This gained the Portuguese access to the lucrative African trade, which, until that time, had been dominated by the Muslims. Under the tutelage of Prince Henry the Navigator, who established a school for navigators in southern Portugal shortly after the Ceuta invasion, the Portuguese began exploring the western coast of Africa, hoping to find a route to the riches of Asia by going around the southern tip of the continent. Other nations, not wanting to be left behind, began sponsoring voyages of exploration as well. Into this world, full of the excitement of exploration and discovery, Christopher Columbus was born. Biographical facts on Columbus vary from author to author. However, most scholars generally agree that he was born in the Italian port city of Genoa, on the Ligurian Sea (an arm of the Mediterranean Sea), between August 25 and October 31, 1451. His name in Italian was Cristoforo Colombo, which is translated into English as Christopher Columbus, into Spanish as Cristóbal Colón, and into Portuguese as Christovão Colom. Columbus used the Portuguese version of his name while in Portugal and the Spanish version after moving to Spain in 1485. Columbus’s father was Domenico Colombo, a wool weaver who was also involved in local politics. His mother was Suzanna Fontanarossa, the daughter of a wool weaver. The eldest of five children, Christopher had three brothers—Bartholomew, Giovanni Pellegrino, and Giacomo—and one sister, Bianchinetta. The entire family moved to the nearby port city of Savona, west of Genoa, in 1470. Although how much formal education Columbus received as a child is not known, the schools of Italian craft guilds (which Columbus, as the son of a wool weaver, would have attended) did offer a rudimentary level of reading and writing. As a boy, Christopher joined his father in the family business of wool processing and selling. He may have worked as a clerk in a Genoese bookshop as well. However, as did many other young men who grew up in a major seaport, Columbus soon began a life of seafaring. Beginning his seagoing career at age 14, Columbus served on various ships in various roles, including messenger, common sailor, and, perhaps, even as a 21-year-old privateer. Columbus’s son Ferdinand stated in History of the Life and Deeds of Christopher Columbus that in 1472 Columbus was given command of a ship on a privateering expedition to Tunis in northern Africa. In a lost letter, Columbus supposedly related to his son how René I, duke of the French province of Anjou, had commissioned Columbus to make a surprise attack on a large Spanish ship sailing off the coast of North Africa. Most historians doubt, however, that Columbus ever received command of the expedition. Much more credible, though, is a subsequent expedition. In 1474 Columbus was hired as a sailor on a ship bound for the island of Khíos in the Aegean Sea, an arm of the eastern Mediterranean Sea. This was his first long voyage and must have proved profitable, because after spending a year on the island he was able to become economically independent from his family. This voyage also represents a great irony in the life of Columbus—the trip to this small island in the Aegean brought him the closest he would ever get to Asia. On August 13, 1476, a Genoese commercial expedition of five ships bound for England gave Columbus his first opportunity to leave the Mediterranean Sea and sail into the Atlantic Ocean. But it was an inauspicious beginning for Columbus: According to tradition, the entire fleet was attacked by French privateers off Cape Saint Vincent on the southwestern tip of Portugal. Both sides lost ships; Columbus, one of the unfortunate ones whose ship was burned, had no escape other than to swim for the Portuguese coast. He made it the 10 km (6 mi) to shore by clinging to wreckage. After regaining his strength in the port of Lagos, Columbus made his way to Lisbon and its large community of Genoese merchants and shipbuilders. He was 25 years old. By 1477 Columbus was settled in Lisbon. Since the beginning of Portuguese voyages of exploration in the middle of the 14th century, Lisbon had become a haven for explorers, adventurers, entrepreneurs, merchants, and any others who saw their fortunes tied to the trade winds and ocean currents. Columbus’s brother Bartholomew worked in Lisbon as a mapmaker, and for a time the brothers worked together as draftsmen and book collectors. Later that year, Columbus set sail on a convoy loaded with goods to be sold in northern Atlantic ports. In 1478 or 1479 Columbus met and married Felipa Perestrello e Moniz, the daughter of a respected, though relatively poor, noble family. Felipa’s father, Bartolomeo Perestrello, who was already deceased when Columbus met Felipa, had served as governor of Porto Santo in the Madeira Islands, a Portuguese possession off the northwest coast of Africa. Soon after their marriage, the newlyweds accompanied the rest of the family back to Porto Santo, where Felipa’s oldest brother took over the governorship. Columbus and Felipa moved to the larger island of Madeira in 1480 or 1481, soon after their son Diego was born. It is believed that Felipa died soon thereafter. In late 1481 or early 1482 Columbus sailed to the Portuguese fortress of Elmina, in what is now Ghana, on the western coast of Africa. Columbus was impressed with the riches Africa offered, especially gold. In addition, like all good navigators, he was eager to learn about winds and ocean currents from the local pilots and sailors. In the waters off the coast of Africa and the nearby Canary Islands Columbus first observed the ocean phenomenon known as the Canaries Current (see Atlantic Ocean: Currents). Knowledge of this fast-moving current running west of the Canary Islands could well have been the reason that Columbus later chose to start his crossing of the Atlantic in the latitude of the Canaries, far south of Spain or Portugal. The experiences of these years led directly to the genesis of Columbus’s plan to reach the east by going west, what he called his “Enterprise of the Indies.” (To Europeans in Columbus’s day, all lands to the east of the Indus River in Asia were “the Indies.”) Inspiration and assistance for his plan came from a number of sources. First, his marriage into the Portuguese nobility proved helpful because, although relatively poor, the family still had connections to the Portuguese court. Columbus apparently gained access to his father-in-law’s papers and found a wealth of information, including maps, charts revealing ocean currents, interviews with sailors, and stories about objects that had drifted to the coast of the Madeira Islands from the west. Also contributing to the formation of Columbus’s plan were his association with the Genoese community in Portugal and his expeditions to Africa. Both furthered his knowledge of Atlantic waters, and his trips to Africa brought him close to the Canary Islands, giving him knowledge of the Canaries Current. Also, while in ports in England, Ireland, Iceland, and other northern regions, Columbus may have heard stories of lands to the west of Iceland. Although the histories of the Vikings, who settled Iceland and Greenland in the 9th and 10th centuries, never became part of the knowledge base of medieval Europeans, it is believed that stories of their encounters with unknown islands in the northern Atlantic were widespread. Columbus’s genius was his remarkable ability to gather information from around the Mediterranean and the Atlantic and combine his own experiences with ancient theories from books in a way that few navigators could. Columbus’s idea of sailing west to get to the east was not original with him, nor did he ever claim that it was. Columbus drew upon science and knowledge accumulated over thousands of years. In Greek and Roman times, for example, geographers theorized that there was only one body of water on the surface of the Earth and that it connected Europe and Asia. If so, one could theoretically sail from the west to get to the east. Only the distance was disputed. Columbus’s ideas of the size of the earth and the distance between Europe and Asia were based on the descriptions contained in several geographic works. These works included the 2nd-century manuscript Geography by Ptolemy; Imago Mundi (Image of the World) by Pierre d’Ailly, published in the early 1480s; and The Travels of Marco Polo, written in 1298 after Marco Polo returned from China. Unfortunately, his ideas did not prove particularly accurate. Columbus founded his theory on two mistaken propositions—that the Asian continent stretched much farther to the east than it actually does, and that Japan lay about 2,400 km (about 1,500 mi) east of the Asian mainland. Columbus also greatly underestimated the circumference of the earth. Columbus calculated that the Canary Islands lay only about 4,440 km (about 2,760 mi) from Japan; the actual distance is about 19,000 km (about 12,000 mi). Similar errors were made by other learned men of the time, including the Florentine geographer Paulo de Pozzo Toscanelli, with whom Columbus may have corresponded. Neither Columbus nor anyone else in Europe suspected that two vast continents lay in the way of a westward passage to Asia. Columbus decided to seek patronage for his plan first in Portugal. With few interruptions, the Portuguese crown had encouraged and supported exploration for over a century, and nearly all new discoveries in the Atlantic were Portuguese. Furthermore, it was well known that the reigning monarch, King John II, was personally committed to sailing around Africa and discovering a direct sea route to the Indian Ocean and Asia. The king’s strong support of geographical exploration made him a logical choice for Columbus to approach. In addition, Columbus had been in Portugal for seven years and had married a Portuguese noblewoman. According to tradition, in 1484 the king listened to Columbus’s proposal to sail to the east by going west and summarily passed it on to his Council of Geographical Affairs. But after a public hearing, the council denied the request on the grounds that it was too expensive, that Columbus was wrong about distances and measurements, and that such a plan contradicted Portugal’s commitment to finding an eastward route to Asia by traveling around Africa.

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mozart (musical maestro )

One of the most widely appreciated prominent musical maestro ever happened to live in the history, musical genius Mozart was born on 27 January 1756 in Salzburg, Austria to Leopold Mozart, a business-minded composer, violinist and an assistant concertmaster at the Salzburg court and Anna Maria Pertl. He was named Johannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Gottlieb Mozart in honor of his grandfather (maternal) and a Saint Johannes Chrysostomus with whom he shared his birth date. Being born and brought up in a family where music was in air, in life and in dreams of everyone, Mozart was naturally attracted towards music. From his childhood, Wolffanfus learned and developed immense interest in music. When he was just 5 years old, Mozart started composing small and beautiful melodious numbers. Looking at his children's musical talent, Mozart's father decided to use this opportunity to showcase the talent of his children (Wolfgangus and elder daughter Maria Anna "Nannerl") in front of the world. At the age of six (in mid 1763), Mozart and his elder sister performed in many concerts in European Courts (In Paris and London); they also gave performances at major cities where they met many music lovers. They also performed in front of the Bavarian elector, royal families and the Austrian empress. Wolfgangus and his sister played piano and violin and were more than successful to tie their audiences to the chairs. Soon, Wolfgangus wrote and published his first composition and when he was nine years old he started writing symphonies. Demand for his music show started increasing so much that only nine months after coming back from his tour in 1766, the Mozart family again set for yet another tour of Vienna. However, due to some problems Mozart could not perform in an opera in Vienna. After coming from the tour of Vienna, Wolfgangus tried to concentrate on improving and learning new skills in music, for this reason he did not plan any tour till 1770. In next three years from 1770 to 1773, Mozart toured Italy three times and gave many outstanding performances. While on tour of Italy, Mozart even wrote two of his famous operas 'Mitridate' and 'Lucio Silla'. Mozart showcased his talent and astonished his audience when he adopted Italian style in his music. Mozart further started his journey of music composition, he wrote set of string quartet and also some symphonies. When Mozart was at Salzburg during the period from 1774 to 1777, he worked as Konzertmeister (Concert Master) at the Prince Archbishop's Court where he performed in some Piano and Violin concerts (about half a dozen piano sonatas), masses, symphonies etc. During the same period, he visited Munich once in 1775 for a premier of his Opera La Finta giardiniera. Wolfgangus was very ambitious and wanted to attain a very high position in the world of music, he knew that staying in Salzburg it was never possible to achieve what he wanted; in 1777 Mozart left Salzburg with his mother and set for Munich and Mannheim. There he tried his best to find a good post for himself but was never offered one, he then moved to Paris in search of the same. In Paris, Anna Maria (Wolfgangus's mother) died and Wolfgangus became very lonely, here also Wolfgangus could not get any suitable post for himself. After Wolfgangus's all the unsuccessful trials, Leopold called him back to Salzburg, where he managed to arrange a high level post for his son. For next two years, Wolfgangus, worked at Court and played concerts at Courts and Cathedrals. He actively participated in concerts, serenades and also composed music for dramas. He also continued composing and creating symphonies. In 1780 he received the most awaited opportunity to perform in an opera at Munich. Along with many concerts, operas and music composition for dramas, Mozart also wrote beautiful music compositions, which have become masterpiece of his artwork. Mozart was sent to the court at Vienna where he was not allowed to work for the post he wanted the most, he finally gave up trying to perform at the court in Vienna and got out of the job around 1781. After that period, Mozart received many golden opportunities to make fortune when he created music while he was not at any post. Soon, Mozart started going in public, he played music in public functions, published his work and also started teaching music. Further in 1787, Mozart was offered a minor court post as Kammermusicus, where he wrote dance music for court balls. In year 1782, Mozart married Constanze Weber (younger sister of Aloysia Weber, Mozart’s former lover). Mozart gained a reasonable popularity by publishing some beautiful sonatas (for violin and piano), music compositions, and by performing in concerts and Operas like 'Die Entfuhrun aus dem Serail' (in 1782, which was one of his most successful operas with many songs in it. NOTE: Mozart wrote serious as well as comic operas (he wrote three comic operas in his life)), he also wrote some quartets, which he had dedicated to his Haydn who appreciated Mozart for his knowledge of music and composition talent. Mozart also gained popularity by managing concerts on his own, without any assistance he not only composed music for the concert but he also managed the orchestra. Mozart earned enough to live a comfortable life, but because of his improper management of money and expenses, he was never able to save money for future and always had to borrow from others when was in need of money. Mozart spent rest of his life in Vienna; during this period he also visited various places such as Salzburg, Berlin etc. to perform in operas, dramas and concerts. Mozart died on 5 December 1791 in Vienna. (There are different stories regarding the death of musical genius, according to one story he died of the feverish illness (Rheumatic Fever) and according to another he died of poisoning). Mozart composed hundreds of beautiful and unique music works which include over 20 operas, about 14-15 Masses, 30-40 concerts (piano and violin), 50-60 symphonies, and 20 sonatas etc. Even after his death, Mozart remained and will remain one of the most favorite musicians for millions of his fans.

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Ludwing Beethoven

Ludwig van Beethoven was baptised on December 17th 1770 at Bonn. His family originated from Brabant, in Belgium. His father was musician at the Court of Bonn, with a definite weakness for drink. His mother was always described as a gentle, retiring woman, with a warm heart. Beethoven referred to her as his "best friend". The Beethoven family consisted of seven children, but only the three boys survived, of whom Beethoven was the eldest.
find on this site:the lives of Beethoven's ancestors
At an early age, Beethoven took an interest in music, and his father taught him day and night, on returning to the house from music practice or the tavern. Without doubt, the child was gifted, and his father Johann envisaged creating a new Mozart, a child prodigy.
On March 26th 1778, at the age of 7 1/2, Beethoven gave his first know public performance, at Cologne. His father announced that he was 6 years old. Because of this, Beethoven always thought that he was younger than he actually was. Even much later, when he received a copy of his baptism certificate, he thought that it belonged to his brother Ludwig Maria, who was born two years before him, and died as a child.
But the musical and teaching talents of Johann were limited. Soon Ludwig learned music, notably the organ and composition by renowned musicians, such as Gottlob Neefe. Neefe recognised the how extraordinarily talented Beethoven was. As well as teaching him music, he made the works of philosophers, ancient and modern, known to Beethoven.
find on this siteBeethoven's music teachers
In 1782, before the age of 12, Beethoven published his first work: 9 variations, in C Minor, for Piano, on a march by Ernst Christoph Dressler (WoO 63). And the following year, in 1783, Neefe wrote in the "Magazine of Music", about his student: "If he continues like this he will be, without doubt, the new Mozart".
In June 1784, on Neefe's recommendations, Ludwig was appointed organist of the court of Maximilian Franz, Elector of Cologne. He was 14. This post enabled him to frequent new circles, other than those of his father and friends of his family. Here he met people who were to remain friends for the rest of his life: The Ries family, the von Breuning family and the charming Eleonore, Karl Amenda, the violinist, Franz Gerhard Wegeler, a doctor, and a dear friend who also went to Vienna, etc.
At home, little by little, Ludwig replaced his father. Financially first of all, because Johann, often under the influence of drink, was less and less capable of keeping up his role at the court. The young Beethoven felt responsible for his two younger brothers, an idea he kept for the rest of his life, sometimes to the extent of being excessive.
Prince Maximilian Franz was also aware of Beethoven's gift, and so he sent Beethoven to Vienna, in 1787, to meet Mozart and to further his musical education. Vienna was, after all, the beacon city in terms of culture and music. There exist only texts of disputable authenticity on the subject of this meeting between Mozart and Beethoven. Mozart is thought to have said "Don't forget his name - you will hear it spoken often."!
But a letter called Beethoven back to Bonn: his mother was dying. The only person in his family with whom he had developed a strong and loving relationship passed away on July 17th 1787.
Five years later, in 1792, Beethoven went back to Vienna, benefiting from another grant, for two years, by the Prince Elector, again to pursue his musical education. He never went back to the town of his birth. His friend Waldstein wrote to him: "You shall receive Mozart's spirit from Haydn's hands"...
At Vienna, the young musician took lessons with Haydn, then with Albrechtsberger and Salieri. He captured the attention of, and astonished, Vienna, with his virtuosity and his improvisations on piano. In 1794, Beethoven composed his opus 1, three trios for piano. The following year, Beethoven made his first public performance at Vienna (an "Academy") whereby each musician was to play his own work. Then followed a tour: Prague, Dresden, Leipzig and Berlin before leaving for a concert in Budapest.
listen to on this siteBeethoven's works
Beethoven made numerous acquaintances at Vienna. Everybody in the musical and aristocratic world admired the young composer. These music-lovers were Beethoven's greatest supporters. He became angry regularly with one or another of them, often making honourable amends soon afterwards. His talent excused his excessive, impulsive behaviour.
In 1800, Beethoven organised a new concert at Vienna including, notably, the presentation of his first symphony. Although today we find this work classical, and close to the works of Mozart and Haydn, at the time certain listeners found the symphony strange, overly extravagant, and even risqué. This genius, Beethoven, who was still a young, new composer, was already pushing the established boundaries of music.
In 1801 Beethoven confessed to his friends at Bonn his worry of becoming deaf. At Heiligenstadt, in 1802, he wrote a famous text which expressed his disgust at the unfairness of life: that he, a musician, could become deaf was something he did not want to live through. But music made him carry on. And he wrote that he knew that he still had many other musical domains to explore, to discover, and to pass on. Beethoven did not commit suicide, rather, knowing that his handicap was getting worse and worse, he threw himself into his greatest works: exceptional sonatas for piano (notably The Storm, opus 31), the second and the third symphonies- The Eroica - and of course many more.
find on this siteBeethoven's deafness
Beethoven wrote this third symphony in honour of a great man, Bonaparte. He was seen as the liberator of the people, opening, from the French Revolution, a door to hope. When the First Consul declared himself Emporor, Beethoven became enraged and scowled out Bonaparte's name from the score.
On April 7th 1805 the Eroica symphony was played for the first time.
Meanwhile, Beethoven had finally finished his opera, Leonore, the only opera he ever wrote. He wrote and re-wrote four different overtures. The name of the opera therefore changed to Fidelio, against the wishes of the composer. November 20th 1805 was the date of the opening performance … before a thin audience of French officers. This was because Napolean, head of the army, had captured Vienna for the first time. This happened again in 1809.
read and listen on this sitethe 4 overtures to this opera
In the years that followed, the creative activity of the composer became intense. He composed many symphonies, amongst which were the Pastoral, the Coriolan Overture, and the famous Letter for Elise. He took on many students, those he found young and attractive, and he therefore fell in love with several of them. The Archbishop Rudolph, brother of the emperor, also became his student, his friend and eventually one of his benefactors.
In 1809, Beethoven wanted to leave Vienna, at the invitation of Jérome Bonaparte. His long-standing friend, the Countess Anna Marie Erdödy, kept him at Vienna with the help of his wealthiest admirers: the Archbishop Rudolph, the Prince Lobkowitz and the Prince Kinsky. These men gave Beethoven an annual grant of 4 000 florins, allowing him to live without financial constraint. The only condition was that Beethoven was not to leave Vienna. Beethoven accepted. This grant made him the first independent composer. Before this contract musicians and composers alike (even Bach, Mozart and Haydn), became servants in the houses of wealthy aristocratic families. They were thus part of the domestic staff, with no more rights than any other, but with the added task of composition and performance. Thus, for the musician of the day, Beethoven had outstanding circumstances: he was free to write what he wanted, when he wanted, under command or not, as he pleased.
In 1812, Beethoven went for hydrotherapy at Teplitz, where he wrote his ardent letter to "The Immortal Beloved". This letter which was found in a secret draw with the Heiligenstadt Testament, has not stopped the theories and suppositions of researchers and biographers ever since. Numerous women amongst his students and friends have been, in turn, proposed as the recipient of this letter. Unless a new document is discovered (perhaps within the possessions of a private collector) it is likely that the truth about this mysterious woman will remain a secret.
find on this sitethe letter to the Immortal Beloved
At the end of July 1812, Beethoven met Goethe, under the organisation of Bettina Brentano. These two great men admired each other, but didn't understand each other. The composer found the poet too servile, and the poet last estimation was that Beethoven was "completely untamed". Beethoven admired Goethe, he put to music several of his poems. I always regretted not having been better understood by Goethe.
Then one of his benefactors, the Prince Lobkowitz, fell into financial difficulty, and the Prince Kinski died from falling off his horse. Kinski's descendant decided to put an end to the financial obligations towards Beethoven. Here started one of the composer's many attempts at saving his financial independence.
The Czech Johann Nepomuk Maelzel took up contact with Beethoven. Inventor of genius, and probably inventor of the metronome, Maelzel had already met Beethoven and had created various devices to help Beethoven with his hearing: acoustic cornets, a listening system linking up to the piano, etc. In 1813, Beethoven composed 'The Victory of Wellington', a work written for a mechanical instrument made by Maelzel, the "panharmonica" (or "panharmonicon"). But it was above all the metronome which helped evolve music and Beethoven, who had taken interest straight away, noted scrupulously the markings on his scores, so that his music could be played how he wished.
The Academy of 1814 regrouped his work, as well as the seventh and eighth symphonies. This was also the time of the re-writing of Leonore as Fidelio, Beethoven's only opera. This work eventually became successful before the public.
Then the Congress of Vienna met, which brought together all the heads of state to decided the future of Europe after Napoleon. This was one of Beethoven's moment of glory. He was invited to play many times, bringing him recognition and admiration of which he could be truly proud.
listen toBeethoven's symphonies
On November 15th 1815, Kaspar Karl, Beethoven's brother, died. He left behind his wife, whom the composer referred to as 'The queen of the night' due to the pastimes of the widow, as well as a son, Karl, who was 9. Here Beethoven's life was to change dramatically. His brother had written that he wished Karl's guardianship to be exercised by both his wife and his brother Ludwig. Beethoven took this role very seriously, but the 45 year old celibate who could no longer hear found it difficult to live with and understand a child, and then a young man. This cohabitation was the cause of a new trial against the mother of the child, a generation conflict and numerous troubles.
In 1816, Carl Czerny (future teacher of Franz Liszt and once Beethoven's student) became Karl's music teacher, but didn't find the talent in the boy which Beethoven hoped him to posses. At this time , he ended his cycle of lieders 'To the distant loved one'and drafted the first theme for his ninth symphony.
Two years later, the Archduke Rudolph became Cardinal and Beethoven began composing his mass in D. It was never ready for the intronisation, but the work was rich beyond compare.
Gioachino Rossini triumphed in Vienna in 1822 where he met Beethoven again. The language barrier and Beethoven's deafness meant that they could only exchange brief words. The Viennese composer tolerated Italian opera only in moderation - he found it lacked seriousness.
The ninth symphony was practically finished in 1823, the same year as the Missa Solemnis. Liszt, who was 11, met Beethoven who came to his concert on April 13th. He congratulated the young virtuoso heartily who, years later, transcribed the entirety of Beethoven's symphonies for piano.
listen toLiszt's transcriptions
May 7th 1824 was the date of the first playing of the ninth symphony and despite musical difficulties, and problems in the sung parts, it was a success. Unfortunately it was not financially rewarding. Financial problems constantly undermined the composer. He always had money put to one side, but he was keeping it for his nephew.
Then began the period of the last quartets, which are still difficult even for today's audience, which knows how to interpret his other works. He started to compose his tenth symphony.
In 1826, Beethoven caught cold coming back from his brother's place, with whom he had rowed again. The illness complicated other health problems from which Beethoven had suffered all his life. He passed away encircled by his closest friends on March 26th 1827, just as a storm broke out.
The funeral rites took place at the church of the Holy Trinity. It is estimated that between 10 000 and 30 000 people attended. Franz Schubert, timid and a huge admirer of Beethoven, without ever having become close to him, was one of the coffin bearers, along with other musicians. Schubert died the next year and was buried next to Beethoven.
The actor Heinrich Anschütz read the funeral prayer written by Franz Grillparzer, (a great writer), in front of the doors of theWähring cemetery (now Schubert Park).

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President George W. Bush

George W. Bush is the 43rd President of the United States. He was sworn into office on January 20, 2001, re-elected on November 2, 2004, and sworn in for a second term on January 20, 2005. Prior to his Presidency, President Bush served for 6 years as the 46th Governor of the State of Texas, where he earned a reputation for bipartisanship and as a compassionate conservative who shaped public policy based on the principles of limited government, personal responsibility, strong families, and local control.
President Bush was born on July 6, 1946, in New Haven, Connecticut, and grew up in Midland and Houston, Texas. He received a bachelor’s degree in history from Yale University in 1968, and then served as an F-102 fighter pilot in the Texas Air National Guard. President Bush received a Master of Business Administration from Harvard Business School in 1975. Following graduation, he moved back to Midland and began a career in the energy business. After working on his father’s successful 1988 Presidential campaign, President Bush assembled the group of partners who purchased the Texas Rangers baseball franchise in 1989. On November 8, 1994, President Bush was elected Governor of Texas. He became the first Governor in Texas history to be elected to consecutive 4-year terms when he was re-elected on November 3, 1998.
Since becoming President of the United States in 2001, President Bush has worked with the Congress to create an ownership society and build a future of security, prosperity, and opportunity for all Americans. He signed into law tax relief that helps workers keep more of their hard-earned money, as well as the most comprehensive education reforms in a generation, the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. This legislation is ushering in a new era of accountability, flexibility, local control, and more choices for parents, affirming our Nation’s fundamental belief in the promise of every child. President Bush has also worked to improve healthcare and modernize Medicare, providing the first-ever prescription drug benefit for seniors; increase homeownership, especially among minorities; conserve our environment; and increase military strength, pay, and benefits. Because President Bush believes the strength of America lies in the hearts and souls of our citizens, he has supported programs that encourage individuals to help their neighbors in need.
On the morning of September 11, 2001, terrorists attacked our Nation. Since then, President Bush has taken unprecedented steps to protect our homeland and create a world free from terror. He is grateful for the service and sacrifice of our brave men and women in uniform and their families. The President is confident that by helping build free and prosperous societies, our Nation and our friends and allies will succeed in making America more secure and the world more peaceful.
President Bush is married to Laura Welch Bush, a former teacher and librarian, and they have twin daughters, Barbara and Jenna. The Bush family also includes two dogs, Barney and Miss Beazley, and a cat, Willie.

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